A

    We do not usually think about how our language works. Talking is such a natural, everyday activity that we do not often stop to consider how it actually works. When we do study our language, though, we are often surprised that we are able to understand our conversations. Words can mean so many different things. However, it turns out that the speaking situation helps a lot in making language work.

    First, the speaking situation helps make words more particular. For example, the word “dog” can describe a dog that a speaker saw in a dream. It can also be used to discuss a neighbor’s dog. No language has a separate word for the idea “dog that I saw yesterday” and another word for the idea “dog that I saw in a dream.” This is because the speaking situation makes it clear what speakers mean when they use words. So, when you have a conversation with your neighbor, the knowledge that you have a dog tells your neighbor what the word “dog” probably means in that situation.

    The speaking situation also helps make language clearer. For example, the word “bank” has two possible meanings. It can mean “a place where people keep money,” but it can also mean “the side of a river.” So the sentence “I went to the bank” is not clear. It could mean I went to the side of the river or it could mean I went to the place where my money is kept. However, if the speaker is talking about fishing or going to the mountains, others probably know that “bank” means “the side of a river.”

The things that speakers say may not always be clear. Sometimes the words are not very particular, but the speaking situation can provide the meaning. Other times words may have many meanings. Then the speaking situation limits the right meaning. This extra knowledge from the situation is very important to understand language.

Fourteen years after the split, Phillips still has some fond memories of her friend Melissa. “She was really fun and lively,” says the mental-health counselor(顾问). “On a Saturday night, she was the life of the party.”

But over the course of their five-year friendship, Philips often felt ignored when her pal made merry in the spotlight. “Melissa never gave me support,” say the 43-year-old. The point came when Melissa tried to sabotage Phillips's new romantic connection. “I decided we couldn't be friends anymore.”

As Phillips learned, ending a friendship is a complex process, filled with difficulty and pain. Here's how to get through – and over –it. 

Start by taking a careful look at the situation. When you're with this person, do you feel like your best self? Can you honestly describe them in flattering terms? How devoted are you to the friendship?

Then you should understand your hesitating. Why is a split so hard? There are many reasons. Friendships aren't monogamous(单偶制), Dr Andrea Bonior, a psychologist and relationships expert explained, so it's easy to enjoy your other pals even when one particular person is dragging you down. That means less pressure to act.

“When the ball is rolling in a long-term friendship, it's hard to stop,” says Bonior. “It's part of the rhythm of our daily lives, and the force is powerful.” Because of this, we also tend to let our friendship get away with bad behavior.

What should you do after you have made the decision to break up? Avoidance is a popular strategy. Phillips tried that at first: she avoided Melissa's calls and stayed away from their frequently visited places, hoping to escape a difficult argument. Sometimes that approach can be successful, according to Bonior.

But if the split comes as an unpleasant surprise to one of the parties, says psychotherapist Moffit, “the friend is left wondering why they're being avoided.”

In that case, a discussion is the respectful way to go. It also opens an avenue for making amends: “You're giving our friend the opportunity to correct what's wrong in the relationship,” says Moffit.

If you take a direct approach, Bonior suggests borrowing words from your romantic life: “I know you've noticed I haven't been able to spend time with you lately. I value our time as friends, but I can't give what I used to.'”

The last thing to do is to grieve（悲痛）and rebuild. “We may feel silly about having an emotional reaction,” says Bonior. “But even if you've started (the split), you can expect to feel sad about it. Let yourself mourn.” She advises consolidating your feelings in your mind, or in a journal, so you can avoid the same pattern in the future.

Once you've got a handle on the emotional fallout, it's time to expand your social circle. By putting your effort into meeting new people, you may just develop a deep, meaningful friendship to last a lifetime. 

D

 Researchers found that women who had given birth might have a reduced risk of death from several common conditions than those who had not, according to a study released Friday by the Imperial College London (ICL).

The study, led by ICL researchers, was published in the journal BMC Medicine. It investigates the association between the so-called reproductive factors -- such as having children and breastfeeding -- and a woman's risk of death.

Researchers analyzed data from 322,972 women across 10 countries, including the UK, France, Germany and Sweden, with an average age of 50.

Each woman was followed for an average of 12.9 years. During this period, there were 14,383 deaths overall, which included 5,938 deaths from cancer and 2,404 deaths from circulatory system diseases, according to the study.

The team compared reproductive factors with risk of death from several common conditions, such as breast cancer, stroke and heart disease.

The researchers found that women who had given birth had a 20 percent reduced risk of death than those who had not. It was also found that there was a reduced risk of death (eight percent) in women who had breastfed compared to those who did not.

The risk of death from cancer was lower in those that had given birth compared to those that had not. Within this group, the risk was reduced even further in women that gave birth to two or three children in comparison to those who had only one child.

"Hormonal mechanisms may explain the lower risk of death that we observed with breastfeeding, and having given birth, as these factors are associated with changes in hormone levels," said Dr Melissa Merritt from ICL, who led the study.

Job Interviews

You have the education and the work experience; now all you need is the job. Most people spend more time getting ready for an evening out than they do preparing for a job interview. There are several things you can do to have a successful job interview. Here are some of them:

1  Know about the company where you are trying to get a job. Find out what the company does and who their competitors(竞争者) are.

2  Know yourself. Most interviewers will ask a question related to your strengths and weaknesses. Before the interview, examine the job you are applying for and determine the top skills needed for that position. For instance, if you are applying for a job as a telephone operator, it’s more important that you have strong communication skills than that you are tidy.

3  Have proof. It’s easy to say you have good organization skills. But if you can tell the interviewer about a time you organized an event, it makes the claim much more solid.

4  Prepare questions to ask about the company and the job.

    An interview is a stressful event. When you are under pressure, it can be difficult to think straight. Preparing before the interview will make it easier to give answers to those tough questions. But you can’t think of every question they might ask. So relax and be confident. Remember, first impressions are lasting.

D

In all one’s lifetime it is oneself that one spends the most time being with or dealing with. But it is exactly oneself that one has the least understanding of.

When you are going upwards in life you tend to overestimate yourself. It seems that everything you seek for is within your reach. When you are going downhill you tend to underestimate yourself, mistaking difficulties for your own incompetence.

To get a complete understanding of oneself is to gain a correct view of oneself — aware of both one’s strengths and shortages. You may look forward hopefully to the future but be sure not to expect too much, for ideals can never be fully realized. You may be courageous to meet challenges but it should be clear to you where to direct your efforts. That’s to say so long as you have a perfect knowledge of yourself there won’t be difficulties you can’t overcome.

To get a thorough understanding of oneself needs self-appreciation. Whether you think you are a towering tree or a blade of grass, a high mountain or a small stone, you represent a state of nature that has its own value. If you earnestly admire yourself you’ll have a real sense of self-appreciation, which will give you confidence. As soon as you gain full confidence in yourself, you’ll be enabled to fight and overcome any adversity.

To get a thorough understanding of oneself also requires doing oneself a favor when it’s needed. In time of sadness, do yourself a favor by sharing it with your friends so as to change a gloomy mood into a cheerful one; in time of tiredness, do yourself a favor by getting a good sleep. As you are aware, what a person physically has is but a human body that’s vulnerable when exposed to the elements. So if you fall ill, it’s up to you to take a good care of yourself.

In a word, to get a thorough understanding of oneself is to get a full control of one’s life. Then one will find one’s life full of color and flavor.

Who is your role model? Normally the answer to this question would be anyone around you who you find truly inspiring. It could also be someone like J.K. Rowling or Martin Luther King Jr. who has proven to be strong and intelligent person.

However, in today’s world, stars are regarded as role models along with the heroes listed above, despite their intentions or actions. Teens attempt to imitate their actions for two major reasons. First, to be fashionable and accepted by popular culture, and second, because stars’ actions are so well documented by the media that it seems to grab our attention. Much of the reports about stars is shocking and exhibits bad morals or lifestyles that aren’t right for teenagers. In addition, almost everything stars do is described beyond truth to make a shocking story by taking it to the next level.

However, teens must take responsibility for their actions. We can’t always blame stars for influencing us. Only you have control over yourself and only you choose to do something. Our bodies and actions are in the hands of no one else.

Now, who ever said stars are role models? Whether they choose to be or not, stars set examples as soon as they step into the spotlight. With reporters following and recording every move they make, it is impossible not to be watched and then be imitated. These people influence teens whether or not they want to. Why someone who doesn’t want to be setting an example set one? So, should we look up to them or the people who are true and good role models? It’s our responsibility as teens to know right from wrong, and it’s time for us to take responsibility for our actions. In doing so, we will learn toward those inspiring people that want to be setting example, and follow in their steps like them.

B

       Do you think it is hard to become president of the country? The American believe that anybody can become president of the United States. In a recent Hollywood comedy(喜剧), that is exactly what happens.

       Dave Kovic, played by Kevin Kline, is a kind-hearted man who runs a business that finds people jobs. He leads a typical(典型的) American way of life, except for one thing－he looks exactly like the President, Bill Mitchell. In fact, the only thing that makes him different from the nation's leader is that he is very nice!

       The president has started using look-alikes during some public appearances. Dave is offered a chance to "serve his country" by becoming one. However, things go wrong. The President becomes very ill and Dave ends up acting as the President forever.

       Director Ivan Reitman, who made the popular and successful comedies like Twins, Ghostbusters and Legal Eagles, could have gone for easy laughs by making fun of the American government. Instead, Dave is an attractive comedy about an ordinary man in extraordinary situations. Kevin Kline gives a double performance as Dave and the President, and Sigourney Weaver is at her best as his First Lady. The love story that develops between her role and Dave is a real classic(经典).

       The film is 100% American. However, if you've ever felt that anybody could do a better job running the country than the people in power, then you'll enjoy Dave!

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Why struggle with your stairs and feel limited in your own home, when a stairlift can give you back your freedom & independence?

   Our range of stairlifts is designed to be easy to use, and all include the very best in design, British engineering, and safety features.

   Like many of our other customers worldwide, you will wonder why you haven’t chosen one of our stairlifts sooner.

   FastTrack means minimum install(安装) waiting times, about two or three days.

   Stairlifts that fit to the stairs, not the wall—no structural changes needed.

   DC power means smooth, quiet operation and the stairlift will even keep going when there is no electricity supply.

   Affordable, installed first and built to last.

   A simple clear LED display shows the status of the stairlift.

   Safety sensors that surround the stairlift’s carriage. If the stairlift knocks against an obstruction(障碍), sensors around the carriage and foot rest stop the stairlift safely.

   Swivel seat(转椅) for easier access. The lockable swivel seat makes it easier and safer to get in and out of the stairlift at the top of the stairs.

Call 1-877-397-6983 now for your free Information Kit and DVD.

D

          In almost every big university（大学）in the United States, football is a favourite sport. American football is different. Players sometimes kick the ball, but they also throw the ball and run with it. They try to take it to the other end of the field. They have four chances（机会）to move the ball ten yards（码）. They can carry it or they can throw it. If they move the ball ten yards, they can try to move it another ten yards. If they move it to the end of the field, they receive six points（点）.

          It is difficult to move the ball. Eleven men on the other team try to stop the man with the ball. If he does not move the ball ten yards, his team kicks the ball the other team.

          Each university wants its own team to win. Many thousands of people come to watch. They all shout for their favourite team.

         Young men and women come on the field to help the people shout more. They dance and jump while they shout.

        Each team plays ten or eleven games each season.

          The season begins in September and ends in November. If a team is very good, it may play another game after the season ends. The best teams play again on January 1, the first day of the New Year. Many people go to see these games and many others watch them on TV.

One of the most important things in the world is friendship. In order to have friends, you have to be a friend. But how can you be a good friend at school?

Listen — Listen when they are talking. Don’t say anything unless they ask you a question. Sometimes it’s not necessary for you to have anything to say; they just need someone to talk to about their feelings.

Help them — If your friend is ever in need of something, be there to help them. You should try to put them first, but make sure you don’t do everything they want you to do. Try to take an extra pencil or pen with you to classes in case they forget one. Have a little extra money in your pocket in case they forget something they need.

Be there for them — Try to make something for your friend to help make them feel better in hard times. Making cards and encouraging them are among the nicest things you can do for a friend. Marilyn Monroe, a famous U.S. actor, once said, “I often make mistakes. Sometimes I am out of control. But if you can’t stay with me at my worst, you are sure not to deserve to be with me at my best.” Always remember this! If you don’t want to stay with your friends when they’re in hard times, then you don’t deserve to be with them when they’re having a good time!

Make plans — Try to make plans with your friends. Go shopping, go for ice cream, have a party, go to a movie and so on. Take time to know each other even better by doing something you both enjoy. By planning things together, you both can have a good time. And you’ll remember these things when you’re all old!